What's in my wine? Archives

Blackboard with the ABV of wine written on it

All about ABV or alcohol levels in wine

All about alcohol in wine Alcohol is one of the components of wine, some say an essential component of wine. But with increasing concern generally about the long-term effects of alcohol on our health, should we all be considering the alcoholic strength of a wine when we decide which bottle to open? This blog looks into the alcoholic content of wine, what ABV on wine labels means in real terms and how it translates into units of alcohol. It delves into the seemingly ever-higher levels of alcohol in wines at a time when many people are seeking low or no alcohol wine. Plus an infographic with examples of high, medium and low alcohol wines. Alcohol in Wine Alcohol is a by-product of the interaction between naturally occurring sugars in grapes and naturally occurring or added yeast during fermentation. If we ignore for now fortified wines like port and sherry which have had spirit added, the level of alcohol in wine can vary from 4 or 5% up to as much as 16% (some would argue that the range should start at 0% but more about that later). What does ABV on a wine label mean? The alcoholic strength of a wine is signified by the ABV percentage that must by law be on the bottle’s label. ABV means alcohol by volume i.e. the alcohol’s percentage by volume. This means that a standard 750ml bottle of wine labelled with 14% ABV will contain 105ml (14% of the 750ml) of pure alcohol. Most of the remaining 86% is water plus some acidity, any residual sugars and the phenolic compounds which give the wine its aromas and flavours. How to calculate units of alcohol from ABV levels A survey by YouGov on behalf of Action on Smoking & Health in 2021 suggests that 75% of people in the UK want to see units of alcohol on wine and other alcoholic drinks’ labels, in addition to the ABV level. It would seem therefore that people are at least trying to monitor their alcoholic consumption. In the UK many drinks companies have agreed to start publishing the units of alcohol per bottle on the label though I suspect some other countries may be less willing. The current maximum suggested levels are 14 units per week in the UK – this level has been confirmed as the maximum for both male and female consumers – sorry guys, but you can no longer say that you can drink 50% more than women. We all know how easy it can be to reach or exceed that level over a week especially in a social situation and especially given the larger wine glasses that the bars and pubs (and we ourselves at home) currently favour. But what does the ABV mean in terms of units of alcohol? To keep track of how many units you are consuming multiply your wine serving size by the ABV percentage and divide the sum by 1000 – or use the Wines With Attitude alcohol unit calculator below. For a 750ml bottle of 14% ABV wine the 105ml of pure alcohol equals 10.5 units of alcohol. One unit is therefore equal to 10 ml of pure alcohol. So with today’s large wine glass servings at 250ml, you can easily have over 3 units in just one glass of wine – that’s 4 glasses of 14% ABV wine a week to stay within the guidelines. [custom_calculator] ABV on wine labels In most countries it is a legal requirement to include the alcoholic strength or ABV on the wine’s front or back label. However it has been proven in various studies that the alcoholic strength as stated on the label is about 0.4% lower than the actual alcohol level for most Old World wines and about 0.45% for most New World wines. This falls within the EU’s tolerance level for mistakes. There is sometimes a suggestion that understating alcohol levels is done to “help” consumers avoid paying higher duty – did you know that duty in the UK on a bottle of wine at 15% ABV is currently £3.31 as opposed to £2.67 on most other wines? There are calls in some countries to make it a requirement for the alcoholic strength to be clearly stated on the front label to make people more aware. In the UK many drinks companies have agreed to start publishing the units of alcohol per bottle on the label. What affects a wine’s alcoholic strength? Regular readers of my wine blogs will know that there are many factors which can affect the alcoholic content of wine and you can find out more in my Lowering alcohol levels in wine blogpost. These include climate, weather, vineyard site and aspect, date of harvest, fermentation temperature, style of wine, yields, quality – and trends. ABV can range from about 5% to over 20% ABV though those at the latter end like port are fortified by adding spirit. Most still wines fall within the 11% to 15% range. Is wine stronger than it used to be? With the current and increasing trend for low or no alcohol wines, it might seem that winemakers are moving away from producing big blockbuster wines but in fact there has been a discernible trend in the not too distant past for higher alcohol in wine. One reason for the higher alcohol is global warming – hotter weather means more sugar in the ripening grapes and therefore more potential to produce higher alcohol – but there are many other contributory and more controllable factors: yeasts have been developed that can survive in higher alcohol levels therefore encouraging fermentation to last longer. Less tolerant yeast could be used instead many winemakers took to leaving grapes on the vine for longer to encourage more complexity and texture in their wines, though both complexity and texture can be developed in lower alcohol wines with good, careful viticulture and wine-making. Something as simple as changing pruning techniques can help grapes ripen more

Lowering alcohol levels in wine

What's in my wine?, Winemaking

Lowering alcohol levels in wine In the world of winemaking, the demand for lower alcohol wines and recent duty changes on alcohol in the UK are bringing a fresh challenge to the forefront: finding ways to reduce alcohol levels in wine without compromising on the flavour and quality. As consumers increasingly seek wines with lower alcohol content, winemakers are faced with the delicate task of keeping sugar levels low in the grapes and controlling alcohol levels in the winery. In this article, we’ll delve into the intricacies of this winemaking balancing act, exploring both vineyard and winery practices and techniques that potentially allow winemakers to achieve this goal while preserving the essence of the wine. The challenge of high alcohol levels in wine High alcohol levels in wine have become a concern for some consumers seeking to decrease their alcohol intake whilst still wishing to enjoy a glass or two of their favourite tipple. In addition, recent duty changes in the UK have seen a £0.44 increase in duty on bottles of still wine with ABV between 11.5% and 14.5% to £2.67 – and to compound the issue, from 1st February 2025 duty on all wine will be calculated according to the ABV such that wines with higher alcohol will attract higher duty. I have written before about the new UK duty system and how it is good in theory but has not, in my opinion, been executed very well. A wine with a fairly average 13.5% ABV will incur duty of £2.89 from February 2025 whilst the price of a 15% ABV wine will include a whopping £3.21 duty tariff. Consequently high alcohol wines are now increasingly becoming a concern for winemakers. However it is not easy to produce low alcohol wines in many wine-making countries; the natural sugars in grapes ferment into alcohol during the winemaking process so in hotter climates grapes naturally have elevated sugar content. Climate change is already making it more difficult to rein in the alcohol content. As a result, wines with alcohol content exceeding 14% have become increasingly common. But there are potentially several ways to try to lower sugar and alcohol levels. Vineyard options to reduce alcohol in wine Winemakers have a number of options in the vineyard to help them achieve reduced sugar levels in the grapes: Grape Variety Selection Theoretically one of the first decisions a winemaker makes is choosing the grape variety although in practice many winemakers inherit or purchase a vineyard with older vines that they might not want to change (read why older vines are often considered to produce better wines). If there is an option however to start afresh with new vines, there are some grape varieties that inherently produce wines with lower alcohol levels, for example, varieties like Riesling, Muscat and Melon de Bourgogne (the Muscadet grape). However reduced alcohol often means sweeter wines which are not to everyone’s taste and those varieties may not suit the vineyard’s terroir, which is usually the winemaker’s principal criteria for grape variety selection. For somthing quite low in alcohol c. 5% and just slightly sweet, try a Moscato d’Asti – especially with desserts! Vineyard Location and Microclimate The location of the vineyard and even specific parts of the vineyard play a vital role in grape ripening and therefore a wine’s potential alcohol content. Cooler climate areas tend to produce grapes with lower sugar content because the growing season is longer, allowing grapes to ripen more slowly. This is why cool climate wines are generally spoken of in hallowed terms and why more commercial, entry-level wines are more likely to originate from hotter climate areas. Within a vineyard whether winemakers choosing specific plots with cooler microclimates make a huge impact on sugar levels is debateable however. Harvest Timing Picking grapes earlier, when grapes have lower sugar levels, might help maintain lower alcohol content but there are several other considerations. Firstly, since acidity in grapes decreases as sugar increases, picking needs to be at a time when sugar and acidity are balanced. If sugars are low and acidity too high, wine can taste quite sour and sharp. Conversely high sugars and low acidity leads to flabby, wines with higher alcohol and a shorter longevity. Acid can be added in the winery but most discerning wine consumers would prefer minimal intervention in the winemaking process. Winemakers also need to ensure grapes are ripe enough to provide their desired flavour profile. Grapes which are picked too early can lead to undesirable green, vegetal flavours in the resulting wine. Pruning There is a direct relationship between the number of leaves surrounding the grape bunches on the vine and sugar levels in the grapes since it is the leaves that initiate the sugar through photosynthesis (and the vines that transport he sugar to the fruit). Cutting away some of the leaf coverage or canopy could therefore potentially reduce sugar levels but there are other factors like nutrients, water and sunlight to take into account and the remaining leaves are believed to compensate to a degree and so pruning is not a sure-fire method for reducing alcohol or sugar. Winery practices to reduce alcohol in wine Reverse Osmosis A process also used to desalinate seawater, this advanced technique involves passing wine through a membrane that separates the alcohol and water from other larger components. The water and alcohol are then separated from each other by distillation and the water added back into the wine to dilute it. Whilst reverse osmosis allows winemakers to control alcohol levels more precisely, it is a costly and resource-intensive process. Most importantly however, some of the things that are effectively filtered out are the tannins and some of the aroma, colour and flavour components. The taste, balance and whole character of the wine can therefore be seriously compromised. Spinning Cone technology This has been around for several years but has only caught people’s attention in recent years, as low and no alcohol wines

Vegan & Vegetarian Wine Guide

What's in my wine?

Vegan & Vegetarian wine guide There is a lot of talk about vegan wine these days. You may wonder what all the fuss is about. After all wine is made from grapes, a plant, so you would think it fits perfectly into a vegetarian’s or vegan’s approved list of food stuffs, wouldn’t you? This vegan wine guide looks at why wine isn’t always vegan, the differences between vegan and non-vegan wine, the differences between vegan and vegetarian wine and how to make sure you choose vegan wine if you have a preference for it.s? The ultimate vegan wine guide Veganism is not just a flash in the pan. The UK’s Veganuary campaign – where people eat vegan for the month of January – has risen dramatically year on year since setting up in 2014. In 2020’s campaign more than 400,000 people pledged to try a vegan diet, up from just over 250,000 in 2019. There are now estimated to be over 600,000 people in the UK aged 15 or over who are vegans (according to a report commissioned by the Vegan Society last year) and the rate of growth is increasing. This means that 1.16% of the UK population meet the Society’s definition of veganism “… a way of living which seeks to exclude, as far as is possible and practicable, all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose.” Foodstuffs that are avoided include meat, dairy, eggs and honey. And an increasing number of people who, whilst not following a strict vegan or vegetarian way of life, are buying meat-free and dairy-free products either for health, animal welfare and / or environmental reasons. Can vegans drink wine? The short answer is yes, vegans can drink wine – but not all wine. You may be surprised, even horrified, to know that some wines are not suitable for vegetarians and some not for vegans – and, perhaps worse, there is no requirement to state on the label if a wine is not vegan- or vegetarian-friendly. Why isn’t wine vegan? Once a wine has been produced, whether a crisp light white wine for drinking in the next year or two or a fuller-bodied red wine that has been aged in oak for a couple of years, the final process before the wine is bottled is known as fining; the aim of fining is to clarify and stabilise the wine before it is released to consumers. And fining may involve the use of animal-based products. Filtration is sufficient to get rid of some of the larger unwanted particles in wine but without fining wine is likely to be cloudy and potentially have unpleasant aromas and flavour due to microscopic impurities such as dead yeast cells and tiny bits of grape, leaves or stalks. Whilst these usually disperse with time, many winemakers use fining to get rid of the smaller impurities in order to make sure that the consumer gets what they are expecting i.e. a clear, clean-smelling, pleasant-tasting wine. The fining agents used in the fining process effectively bind with the impurities and the resulting precipitate is removed by filtration or by pumping the wine off the sediment; the problem is that many of the fining agents commonly used consist of animal proteins such as: Egg whites or albumin – eggs Isinglass – traditionally from sturgeon bladders and now more usually from general fish waste Gelatine– from animal tissue, bones & skin Casein – a milk protein Years ago even ox or bull’s blood was used but their use was banned in Europe in 1987. What is vegan wine? The good news for wine-loving vegans is firstly that wine does not need to be fined – eventually the wine will become clear itself. However most wine drinkers would not accept cloudy wine and most winemakers do not want to have to hang onto their wine in the cellar for a long time. But secondly there are alternatives to animal proteins that can be used. Bentonite, a form of clay, charcoal, or silica sol are the main acceptable alternatives for vegetarians and vegans. I find bentonite is most commonly used. Christophe Thibert of Domaine Thibert recently explained to me that the fining process is a very delicate balance; he tries to avoid fining altogether but has to keep checking the wine. If fining is required, Thibert uses bentonite and as little as possible. Some argue that no traces of animal products remain after fining as all the protein is removed with the impurities. But vegan friends do not agree with that argument – they prefer to drink wine that has had no animal products in it at any stage. The difference between vegetarian & vegan wine Vegan-friendly wine would have to be unfined or have had Bentonite, charcoal, or silica sol used as the fining agent. A wine that had been fined with egg whites or casein might be acceptable for vegetarians but not for vegans. However it is probably safer for vegetarians to seek out vegan wines to be absolutely sure that no meat or fish products have been used. Vegan wine labelling The bad news is that you won’t know from most wine labels what has been used to fine a wine if anything. Only rarely will you find a wine label that states that the wine may contain eggs, fish or milk – despite these being on EU’s list of allergens that must be listed on foodstuffs since December 2014. Labels like this one from the lovely Alpha Domus The Wingwalker Viognier are rare. Most vegetarians would find egg whites and milk/ casein acceptable but vegans would not. It is probably safer for vegetarians to seek out vegan wines to be absolutely sure that no meat or fish products have been used. One suggestion is to stick to unfiltered wines in order to avoide wines that have been fined with animal-based products. All well and good but I am not convinced that filtering

Oak barrels used for ageing wine in a winery

A guide to oaked and unoaked wine

What's in my wine?, Wine Styles

A guide to oaked and unoaked wine Many wine drinkers have a strong preference for either oaked wines or unoaked wines; people seem to love one and hate the other. It is important to differentiate between oaky wines with a strong taste of oak that appeal to a small proportion of wine drinkers and oaked wines. The latter have been fermented and / or aged in oak and may have no discernible wood on the palate or nose. Over-oaky wines like heavily-oaked Californian Chardonnay and commercial style Rioja, popular up till relatively recently, have not helped the reputation of oaked wines in general. So this guide looks at how wood affects wine, why and when oak is used in winemaking and how to tell oaked wines from unoaked wines. And, if wines matured in barrel are not your bag, there are also some tips on how to avoid them. How oak affects wine Oak can affect wine in a number of different ways. It can obviously affect the aroma and flavour of wine – but importantly, it does not have to affect the aroma and flavour. It can also have an impact on the colour, tannins and structure of wine and it can encourage clarification of the wine, with time. Aromas & flavours from oak Firstly though, let’s take a look at the aromas and flavours from oak that can be distinguished in wine. Vanilla is probably the flavour that first springs to mind and this comes from vanillin in the wood itself. Many of the other flavours come from toasting the barrel, a process used primarily to make the wood flexible enough to shape it but also to get rid of any bitter, green, raw wood flavours and to release other more palatable flavours. The stronger the degree of toasting, the more intense the flavours. Lighter toasting shows spices like cloves and nutmeg with more intense toasting leading to flavours like dried fruit, dill, coconut, caramel, cocoa or chocolate, coffee, toast, smoke and even burnt wood (flavours like those depicted in the left hand side of the image below). This wide range is why wine aged in barrel is often described as having complexity. The right hand side of the image depicts the fresh fruit aromas likely to dominate in a wine that has not been fermented or aged in barrel. Of course wine produced in a stainless steel vat can also be complex but the complexity comes from the grapes, the influence of the soils and the terroir in general and from the production processes such as maceration – where the grape juice is left on the skins – and lees ageing – where the wine rests on the dead yeast after fermentation. Colour from oak The longer white wines rest in oak, the darker they become. Chances are a deep yellow coloured white wine will have been fermented and / or aged in barrel although lees ageing can also make a white wine darker. Ageing wine in oak stabilises the colour of red wine rather than changing it. Tannins & oak Tannins in wood can transfer into wine though mainly if new barrels are used and so winemakers have to monitor the affects carefully to avoid over-tannic wines. However, although oak is watertight – and wine-tight! – it does allow a tiny amount of oxygen to enter the wine and this slight oxidation helps to soften the tannins and make the wine rounder and smoother. It is these tannins and structure that give a wine the ability to age well. Tannins from oak can also assist in development of polyphenols, the many naturally-occurring compounds that affect the colour, taste and texture of the wine. Body & texture from oak In addition to the softening of wine in barrels through subtle oxidation, there is research to suggest that micro-organisms in the wood contribute to the smooth texture and elegance of the wine. Certainly it is known that American oak is relatively high in certain organic esters that give wine a creamy texture. In brief, oak brings more complexity to wine. In an unoaked wine fresh fruit flavours dominate, the body is likely to be lighter, tannins will be low and the wine is unlikely to be particularly age-worthy. Most (well-made) oaked wines will have fresh fruits balanced with the flavours from the oak; tannins will give the wine structure but should not be too harsh or mouth-drying and the wine will have a fuller body and smooth mouthfeel. How oak is used in winemaking Oak is widely used in wine making and it can enhance many wines – though not all. Care has to be taken not to overpower the wine’s natural flavours and aromas. In fact most wines will have spent some time in an oak cask but there are a large number of variables which mean that the influence of the oak ranges from high to practically zero and that the impact is on different aspects of the wine. Choices for the winemaker about using oak barrels Winemakers can influence the colour, aromas, flavours and texture of a wine if they choose to: 1) use oak as a fermentation vessel or not The wines in my portfolio that I describe as unoaked have not been fermented or aged in oak just so that you can be sure of their complete unoaky provenance (some other retailers will describe wine fermented in oak but not aged in oak as unoaked). But don’t worry too much about wine fermented in oak – many wines are but the vessels are usually very large and very old so the effects on taste are very subtle, if noticeable at all. There are other advantages however to fermenting wine in oak, even if the oak vessels are large and old… Large oak vats or casks are often used for fermentation as it is believed that oak flavours are better integrated at that stage in the

Sulphites in wine by Wines With Attitude

Contains Sulphites on wine labels

What's in my wine?

A guide to sulphites in wine What “Contains sulphites” on wine labels means Every year I pop into RAW, the natural wine fair held in London – and other cities. There is some debate about exactly what a natural wine is and it seems to be the Marmite of the wine world at the moment (you either love it or hate it). Perhaps it may come as a surprise to find that even many so-called ‘natural’ wines and organic wine have the words “Contains sulphites” (or sulfites) on their labels, words which don’t sound very wholesome… SO WHAT ARE SULPHITES AND WHY ARE THEY IN WINE? In wine sulphites are effectively sulphur dioxide (E220) which is a natural by-product (in very small amounts) of the fermentation process; but it is also often added to wine at various stages of the wine-making process as a preservative, to stop oxidation and to kill bacteria. Potassium metabisulphite (E224) may be added as an alternative as it releases sulphur dioxide from grapes for the same purposes. SO WHAT ARE SULPHITES AND WHY ARE THEY IN WINE? In wine sulphites are effectively sulphur dioxide (E220) which is a natural by-product (in very small amounts) of the fermentation process; but it is also often added to wine at various stages of the wine-making process as a preservative, to stop oxidation and to kill bacteria. Potassium metabisulphite (E224) may be added as an alternative as it releases sulphur dioxide from grapes for the same purposes. WHAT LEVELS OF SULPHITES ARE IN WINE AND HOW SAFE ARE THEY? It is as a result of the EU food allergens labelling regulations that those words of warning are required on the label of wines if they contain more than 10 parts per million (“PPM”) of sulphites, equivalent to 10 mg per litre, so a very small amount. Sulphites and/ or sulphur dioxide are an allergen for a small number of people who can display asthmatic symptoms when in contact with them. Obviously if you are one of the unfortunate few with that sensitivity you should avoid wines containing sulphites or choose those with very low levels – sulphur detection strips are readily available online. Sulphites in wine have also been thought to be the cause of headaches for some people. However following several studies this theory has largely been disproved. See below my tips for avoiding wine headaches. The level of sulphites in wine range from about 10 PPM to c.350 PPM. A range of 10 to 40 PPM is considered ‘normal’ i.e. the wine has only naturally occurring sulphur, so you may see on labels “No added sulphites”. But to put things in context, many foodstuffs contain higher levels than most wine e.g. fresh fruit salads, fruit squash, soy sauce and most processed foods. Dried fruits can be especially high in sulphites at up to c.3000 PPM so in comparison 350 PPM does not seem particularly high. By the way, white wines generally have more sulphites than red wine as they are more susceptible to oxidation, not having the high levels of natural antioxidants that red wines have. REDUCING SULPHITES IN WINE The good news is that the permitted levels are much lower than they used to be so winemakers have to control contact with oxygen much more tightly and should therefore use sulphur dioxide sparingly. Harmless sulphites can sometimes be detected by a struck match aroma which some people think adds character to certain wines. If you don’t like this aroma in your wine the simple solution is to decant the wine and chill it. One way to reduce sulphites in wines is to add hydrogen peroxide; this substance oxidises the sulphites and converts them to the inoffensive hydrogen sulphate. There are some products based on food-grade hydrogen peroxide being marketed as a means of removing sulphites from wine but they are not yet available in the UK. The jury is still out though personally I think adding even food-grade hydrogen peroxide sounds far more scary than drinking a wine with safe levels of sulphur dioxide. WHAT ABOUT SULPHITE-FREE WINES? As traces of sulphites are produced during fermentation, no wine is truly sulphite-free. It is possible however to make wine without introducing any additional sulphur dioxide but great care has to be taken from the time the grapes are picked through to bottling the wine to avoid oxidation which can kill a wine’s fruit flavours. As you can imagine larger, more commercial wine companies are less likely to invest the time and precision needed to control exposure to oxygen so it is generally smaller producers who are looking for a more natural wine reflecting the ‘terroir’ who produce wine without added sulphites. The results can be amazing – wines without added sulphur dioxide are considered to have brighter flavours and colour (especially for red wine since sulphur dioxide boosts the extraction of pigments in the wine-making process). But given the risk of oxidation these wines won’t keep long and can spoil very easily thus ruining those brighter flavours that the producer has strived to encourage. There is also the danger of the wine developing a very unpleasant ‘mousy’ character which cannot be cured by decanting or any other means. So, don’t be put off by those words “Contains sulphites” unless you have or suspect you have a sensitivity to them. And if you get chance to try a “No added sulphites” wine, give it a try – but don’t keep the bottle open for long! WINE HEADACHES If you are one of those people who suffers from headaches whenever they drink wine even in small amounts, I firstly recommend avoiding cheap wine – you may think this is just an effort to tempt you to buy wines with attitude but in general cheaper wines are less well made and more likely to have been adjusted with additional sugar, alcohol, oak flavourings etc. It may also be worth trying to avoid oaked wines and grapes particularly high in tannins like Cabernet

Grape tannins are in the skins, pips and stalks by Wines With Attitude

Guide to tannins in wine

What's in my wine?

Guide to tannins in wine Tannins in wine tend to have a bad press but is it justified? This blogpost takes a look at exactly what tannin is and how you can detect it in wine, which wines are the most tannic and which the least and how levels of tannin can be altered during wine-making and during ageing from the effects of oak. I’ll also cover the best foods to match with tannic wines and try to answer whether tannins are good or evil. Firstly, let’s look at how to detect whether the wine you are drinking is tannic. HOW TANNINS IN WINE TASTE It is in fact impossible to describe the smell or taste of tannins. It is easier to detect them through the sensations they create in the mouth… When taking my Diploma in Wine & Spirits I asked almost every lecturer and wine expert that came to talk to my class at the Wine & Spirit Education Trust how tannins can be detected and measured particularly as we were expected to describe tannins with words such as ripe, soft, green, stalky, chewy, coarse and fine-grained. It is very hard to describe how tannins can be measured and there were a lot of attempts to answer my question but the best explanation came from Michelle Cherutti-Kowal, now a Master of Wine, and it helped immeasurably in my general understanding of tannins and in those descriptions required for the blind wine tasting exams. Here’s how to tell if a wine has tannins and what kind of tannins they are. When you have a small amount of wine in your mouth, keeping your mouth closed, carefully rub your tongue over your top front teeth. With a tannic wine you can feel a bit of roughness on the teeth. Try it with several different wines and you will begin to be able to differentiate between coarse- and fine-grained tannins, wines with finer tannins feeling slightly smoother on the teeth than those with coarser tannins. In addition tannins leave you with an astringent sensation in the mouth, astringency being detectable by a mouth-puckering dryness on the inside of your cheeks such as you would get from sucking on a lemon. This feeling is caused by tannins interacting with proteins in the saliva; this interaction dries out the mouth. Some say that tannins create a bitter taste but in fact it is astringency evidenced in highly astringent wines by a chalky, powdery feeling in the cheeks but in less astringent wines with balanced or low tannins by a smooth silky texture. WHAT ARE TANNINS IN WINE? To understand tannins in wine and the effect they have, it helps to know where tannins come from. Tannins are found in many plants like the vine, tea plants and rhubarb. On the vine they are concentrated in the skins of grapes but are also found in the pips and in the stalks and leaves of the vine itself. Without being too technical, tannins are natural compounds and as mentioned above they react with proteins to make an unpleasant astringent sensation, thought to be nature’s way of deterring animals from nibbling on some plants. I am often asked if white wines have tannins. In fact since all grapes have skin and almost all have pips, all wines have tannins but to varying degrees. And in general white wines and rosé will have fewer tannins but the level of tannins depends on a number of factors – all of which I expand on below – such as the amount of time on the vine before harvesting, the grape variety itself and on the wine-making process. In the vineyard as grapes develop and ripen in the sunshine and warmth, the tannins in the skins and pips soften and become less astringent. Grapes grown in warm climate wine regions have more chance of creating wines with softer tannins than grapes grown in cool climate areas. The best time to harvest black grapes isn’t just about reaching the optimal level of sugar and acidity in the grapes but also about making sure the tannins are ripe and not too “green”. HIGH TANNIN WINES Some grapes are naturally higher in tannin than others. Grapes that are particularly high in tannins (often thicker-skinned grapes) include Cabernet Sauvignon (think of young Left Bank Bordeaux wines), Shiraz, Sangiovese, Nebbiolo, Malbec and Pinotage. But bear in mind that this does not mean that all wines made from Cabernet Sauvignon for example will display high levels of tannins because so much depends on the vintage and on the way the grapes have been treated in the vineyard and in the winery. In general younger red wines will have harsher tannins than aged red wines but, if they are well-made wines, their tannins will soften after ageing in a vat or in bottle. LOW TANNIN WINES Grapes that are naturally low in tannins include Pinot Noir, Dolcetto and Gamay. In a similar vein this does not mean that all Gamays for example will be low in tannins because winemakers could for example ferment and age the wine in new oak barrels, the effects of which are explained below. Grenache and Merlot are fairly low in tannins. In general white wines have lower levels of tannins because of the way they are processed during wine-making. TANNINS IN WINE-MAKING Tannins change during the wine making process and during ageing but the chemical process is still not fully understood despite numerous research projects. Aside from the ripeness of the tannins when the grapes are picked, the following can have a significant effect on the level of tannins in wine: – The length of time the grape skins are in contact with the juice and whether the grape stalks are included during maceration. In making red wine production it is essential to extract colour and flavours from the skins of the grapes and therefore tannins are unavoidable. The key is not to over-extract. For white wine the juice of the grapes is

Precedent Evangelho old vine Zinfandel from Wines With Attitude

Do old vines make better wines?

What's in my wine?

Do old vines make better wines? Chances are you will have seen the term “Old Vine” or one of its foreign equivalent terms such as “Vieilles Vignes”, “Alte Reben”, “Viñas Viejas”, “Vinhas Velhas” or “Antico Vitigno” on some wine labels. There is no requirement under any wine regulations that I know to mention the age of the vines used for wine grape production and yet old vine is a term that seems to be used increasingly frequently and with the implication that old vine wine should be held in high esteem. In this wine blogpost, I’m looking into whether grapes from older vines really do make better wine. HOW OLD ARE OLD VINES? Here in the UK we have an amazing old vine at Hampton Court Palace. Planted in 1768 under Capability Brown’s direction, it is said to be the largest vine in the world but even at circa 250 years old, The Great Vine cannot claim that it is the oldest vine in the world as for a long time Georgia, Slovenia and Italy have claimed to have vines planted in the 17th century. Nor can it claim that its fruit is used for wine since it produces a table grape variety. In fact the 17th century has now been trumped as Weingut von Racknitz, a former monastery, in Germany claims to have a 600 year old vine found on an old abandoned terrace. It is hard to imagine when looking at a woody, gnarly old vine that it could produce good quality fruit or indeed any fruit but vines can still produce grapes when very old – those Georgian, Slovenian and Italian 17th century vines are said to be producing grapes still used for wine today. Good quality grapes are not a given however – according to the Old Vine Registry, of which more later, grapes from the 600 year-old German vine taste “terrible, like cucumber”. REGISTERING & DEFINING OLD VINES California started a register of its old vines in 2011; it is believed to have the highest number of old vines and ironically Prohibition played a major role in this as vines were simply abandoned at that time and later “rediscovered”. According to the Californian Historic Vineyard Society website “To qualify as a Certified Historic Vineyard, a vineyard must be a currently producing California wine vineyard with an original planting date at least 50 years ago, in which at least 1/3 of existing producing vines can be traced back to their original planting date.” Over in Australia, the Barossa Valley is proud to have some of the oldest continuously-producing vineyards in the world. It is one of the few wine regions that avoided the phylloxera aphid which is the reason why most of the world’s vines are now grafted onto phylloxera-resistant rootstocks. Understandably keen to protect its precious ungrafted old vines especially after many were uprooted in the 1980s it saw what California was doing and started its own register of old vines. Australia’s Old Vine Charter categorises the old vines further according to their age: Barossa Old Vine – Equal or greater than 35 years of age like the one to the right Barossa Survivor Vine – Equal or greater than 70 years of age Barossa Centenarian Vine – Equal or greater than 100 years of age Barossa Ancestor Vine – Equal or greater than 125+ years of age South Africa in fact has the oldest records of old vines dating back to 1900, a database run by the South African Wine Industry Information Systems (SAWIS). Since I first published a blogpost on this subject in 2017, South Africa’s Old Vine Project, set up in 2002 by viticulturalist Rosa Kruger, launched a Certified Heritage Vineyard seal which certifies that a wine is made from vines of 35 years and older. But producers don’t necessarily always put the seal on their bottles. Conversely some wine producers don’t wait until a vine is 35 or 50 years old before labelling it an old vine; since there is no legal definition of the term ‘old vine’, it is very much a matter of personal preference or perhaps more of marketing preference but as old vine wines are generally and increasingly revered, the term old vine can be misleading. However we are beginning to see some signs of conformity in the registering and defining of the term ‘old vines’… The most significant step in coming up with a worldwide recognised age for old vines since my last update is the 2023 launch of the online registry of old vines that was initiated on a spreadsheet in 2010 by Jancis Robinson’s Purple Pages. Now maintained by the Old Vine Conference, a non-profit organisation that aims to highlight the value of old-vine vineyards and make them economically viable, The Old Vine Registry is still very much a work in progress but is already the most comprehensive online database of old vines worldwide. You can search by country or by age and there are links to the vineyard owners’ websites. The ultimate aim is to also provide links so consumers can see where to find a particular vineyard’s wines. But, as mentioned, it is an on-going project and, since few countries have detailed records like South Africa, sometimes an estimation of age is all that is possible. NEW VINES OR OLD VINES – WHICH ARE BETTER? New vines take time to establish themselves; they don’t tend to produce many grapes until year three first concentrating on establishing their root structure and a sturdy trunk. It is usually only by year five or six that the grapes are of use for commercial wine production. After that the vine’s growth below and above ground is more balanced. As it ages further the vine’s growth becomes less vigorous and as a result fewer grapes are produced; this reduction in yield starts as early as the age of 20 years old. This reduction in yield is in fact the very reason why older vines are sometimes ripped out (often with

Biodynamic wine: is it better for you?

What's in my wine?

Biodynamic wine: is it better for you? Biodynamic wine remains an enigma to many people and not therefore a priority for most people when shopping for wine. This guide to biodynamic wine explains what biodynamics mean in terms of wine, how you can tell if a wine is biodynamic or not, what the differences are between organic and biodynamic wine and whether biodynamic wines are better for you. I touched upon the subject of biodynamic wine in my blog post on natural wine and how natural wine differs from organic and biodynamic wine. The three terms are sometimes used interchangeably but they are not the same thing. Natural wine is still trying to secure a common identity and remains a somewhat confusing and controversial term. Organic wine is becoming increasingly popular in the UK as people look for healthier food and drink but biodynamic wine seems to be a mystery with a rather wacky reputation. Let’s see why… WHAT IS BIODYNAMICS? In the most simplistic terms biodynamics is farming without the use of any chemicals and taking a holistic approach by treating the farm or vineyard as one ecosystem. This approach is believed to reduce the carbon footprint and to improve the health of the soil. The rhythm and cycles of the moon, sun, earth, stars and planets may also be taken into account which is where biodynamics’ wacky reputation comes into play. Biodynamics advocates claim it to be the world’s oldest system of organic growing but it was labelled biodynamics only in 1924 by Austrian philosopher and scientist, Rudolf Steiner. Considered the father of biodynamics, Steiner was concerned about the increasing use of synthetic fertilisers and mass farming techniques and lectured farmers about more sustainable agricultural methods which were subsequently researched and developed further. BIODYNAMICS & WINE In the wine world a biodynamic vineyard is treated as one living organism, taking into account the interdependence of all parts of the immediate environment, and it should be self-sustainable and self-supporting. To achieve biodynamically grown grapes, practices in the vineyard may include the following: biodiversity via: livestock which are allowed to roam to graze on cover crops between the vines and assist with natural compost production and cover crops growing between the vines stop weeds and when turned over into the soil help to build up nutrients, break up compacted soil and encourage insects biodynamic compost to encourage microbial diversity and to release carbon planting and harvesting according to biodynamic calendars though this is not mandatory for certification biodynamic preparations including: worm tea instead of chemical insecticide and soil treatments such as cow manure inside cow horns or intestines buried in the soil for several months in order to promote healthy plant growth. These treatments are perhaps also partly to blame for the controversy around biodynamics. WHAT IS BIODYNAMIC WINE? It is important however to differentiate between biodynamic wine and wine made from biodynamically grown grapes. Wine labelled as “wine made from biodynamic grapes” may not be biodynamic wine. How so? The biodynamic practices required in the production of wine made from biodynamic grapes are limited to the vineyard but the winemaker will have more freedom in what he or she can add to, or take out of, the wine during the wine production process. For example they may choose to add bought in yeast rather than using the winery’s naturally occurring yeasts. A truly biologically dynamic wine must be produced from biodynamic grapes AND follow strict regulations dictating the production of the wine in the winery. This effectively means that no artificial agents are permitted during the wine-making process. Using the above example a biodynamic wine can only be fermented with yeasts existing naturally in the winery. Even in organic wine production additional synthetic or natural substances can be used including: sulphites or sulfites – up to certain limits synthetic malolactic bacteria to aid malolactic fermentation additional yeast sweeteners fining agents Biodynamic producers may also use the following practices: leaving the wine unfiltered bottling wine according to biodynamic calendars using solar or wind energy generated in the vineyards. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BIODYNAMIC & ORGANIC WINE Both biodynamic and organic wines have to be produced without the use of synthetic pesticides and chemical treatments in the vineyard but biodynamics goes further and, as mentioned above, has strict regulations about what can and can’t be done in the winery. The official requirements for all biodynamic food and drink, according to biodynamic association Demeter, “go above and beyond EU organic regulations … They not only exclude the use of synthetic fertilisers and chemical plant protection agents in agricultural crop production, and artificial additives during processing, but also require licensees to proactively take specific measures to strengthen the life processes in soil and in food.” By this definition therefore biodynamic wine should contain no artificial substances – in theory. But when you dig down into the Demeter standards there are exceptions to the rules. For example, under certain conditions when a fermentation is stuck, bought-in yeast is allowed; sulphites can be added and, perhaps more surprisingly given its toxicity and the biodynamic focus on healthy soils, copper is also permitted. Bordeaux mixture is a copper sulphate and lime-based treatment that has been used for over 120 years to control downy mildew. The amounts of these substances and when they can be used are however strictly limited and in fact the EU has recently reduced the maximum permitted copper levels by a third. This may lead to a number of producers losing organic and or biodynamic certification until a natural alternative to Bordeaux mixture is found. Despite these exceptions I think it is fair to say that biodynamic wine will generally have lower levels of artificial additives than organic wine – and that organic wine will have lower levels than non-organic wine. HOW TO FIND BIODYNAMIC WINES Biodynamic wines should be easily identifiable; look for the Demeter logo – often orange in colour or adapted as below on the label for Reyneke’s Reserve Cabernet Sauvignon. The Ceres logo by the

Terroir & its impact on wine by Wines With Attitude

All about terroir and how it affects wine

What's in my wine?, Wine Styles

ALL ABOUT TERROIR & HOW IT AFFECTS WINE Terroir is a much-used and much-debated term but what exactly does it mean? Some say terroir produces better wines with more character, so-called terroir wines – but is that right? I confess I have long been a great fan of terroir and I use the expression quite liberally in my unique tasting notes. But there are many who think the term terroir is over-used and the concept over-rated, little more than a marketing ploy. This blogpost looks at what terroir means, how terroir affects wine and why it is such a topic of hot debate. WHAT DOES TERROIR MEAN? It is not, as some have suggested, pretension that dictates the use of the French word “terroir” in the English-speaking world; there is simply no one word that can describe the concept in English and it originated in wine’s old world. Terroir is a concept that has dictated the appellation system in many old world wine regions. Burgundy’s small ‘parcel’ vineyards for example were ranked centuries ago according to the perceived quality of each specific vineyard and these rankings formed the basis of Burgundy’s appellation systems formalised in 1936. The top ranking or Grand Cru wines of Burgundy originate from the vineyards with the best terroir of the region; consequently they command the best prices. There have been few changes to the system since and classification by terroir has been copied in other wine regions of the world. It is mistakenly thought by some, since vineyards are the basis for this sort of classification, that terroir must refer specifically to the soil in the vineyard; after all there are hundreds of different types of soil and they are known to affect the taste of the grapes/ wine but soil is just one component of terroir. Terroir in fact comprises the whole ‘natural’ environment in which the grapes are grown and is therefore a combination of: the soil, with differences in structure, texture, depth, pH levels, water drainage & storage capabilities all having an effect. Note – contrary to popular belief, it is not well-watered vines on fertile soils that produce the best fruit but vines on well-drained soils that have to struggle to find water the general climate of the region the climate of each specific vineyard, a so-called meso-climate and even the vine’s own micro-climate since the climate at one end of a vineyard may differ to the climate at the other the topography of the land including: the aspect, with south-facing vineyard considered superior in the Northern hemisphere and north-facing in the Southern hemisphere elevation or altitude, considered to be a significant factor as it affects temperatures in the vineyard incline, with slopes facing the sun generally preferred to flat land proximity to water, not necessarily for watering purposes but for the water’s ability to store heat and warm up land areas close to it the surrounding vegetation which can affect not only the local climate but also the taste of the wine e.g. the taste of eucalyptus often detected in Australian wine plus the interaction of all these components for example in governing how much direct sunshine the grapes receive and in dictating how much water is available to the vines etc. Therefore each vineyard (or even each plot within a vineyard) has its own unique terroir and this is in part what makes each well-made wine unique. Terroir determines the quality of the grapes grown and therefore is a significant (but not the only) contributor to the character of a wine. DOES TERROIR INCLUDE WINE-MAKING? Many argue that the wine-maker and the wine-making process are necessarily also part of terroir. It cannot be denied that human intervention greatly affects the elements of terroir listed above whether winemakers choose to let nature take its course and intervene as little as possible in the vineyard and in the winery or whether they throw every chemical permitted at the vines and in the wine-making process. After all the wine-maker must decide whether and how much fertiliser and pesticide to use, how densely the vines are planted, which training system to use for the vines, which date the grapes should be harvested, whether natural or bought yeasts are used for fermentation, whether to use oak barrels, stainless steel vats or concrete tanks etc etc. The list is endless. But for many others, myself included, ‘natural environment’ is the key phrase in the definition of terroir; terroir is about the naturally-occurring elements that affect the wine not about the decisions made to create the resulting wine. But it is the wine-maker who dictates how well the terroir is reflected in the wine and therefore has a huge effect on the character, as well as the style and quality, of the wine they produce. It is a combination of good terroir and great wine-making that produces great wine. ‘TERROIR WINE’ The phrase terroir wine seems to be increasingly used in marketing wines but surely all wine is terroir wine since all vineyards have terroir – and a terroir that is unique to them? Be a little wary of the expression as the implication is that terroir wine is superior wine and it may be used simply to justify a higher price label than a wine deserves. Whether labelled as terroir wine or not, wines that don’t display terroir can sometimes be the subject of snobbery. New world wines especially were accused in the past of being devoid of or ignoring terroir and it could be argued that that was why cheaper, more commercially-produced wines were the focus for new world exports to Europe from the 1980s to the 2000s. It could however just be that they wanted to do something different from the strict classifications and regulations of the old world, that the wine-maker preferred to accentuate a wine’s fruit flavours rather the terroir, that the winery wanted to produce a consistent style of wine year on year or, as was the case with South Africa,

What does acidity in wine mean?

What's in my wine?

WHAT DOES ACIDITY IN WINE MEAN? This Wines With Attitude guide covers everything you need to know about acidity in wine – how you taste acidity in wine, what causes it, which wines have high acidity and which are low in acidity, whether high or low acidity is better plus tips on matching high acid wines with food. Wine writers use the word “acidity” frequently – I know that I write the term often in my Wines With Attitude tasting notes. Conscious that some consumers may be wary of the words “acidity” or “acidic”, I try to vary the words I use to describe wines displaying acidity so you will see terms such as fresh, bright, zesty, zingy, refreshing, tangy and crisp though whether these really convey the true meaning could be debated. It is simply difficult if not impossible to avoid using “acidity” because it is one of the essential components of a good wine. So, if we can’t avoid the term, let’s find out more about it. HOW TO TASTE ACIDITY IN WINE Acidity is not a taste as such (if your wine tastes of acid then you have a problem) but it can be detected by a tingling sensation on the sides of the tongue. When you taste a wine with high acidity such as a Sancerre, your mouth will water more than usual – just as it does when you bite into a sharp Granny Smith apple or drink unsweetened lemonade. It whets the appetite, making you want to take another bite or sip. WHAT ACIDITY ADDS TO WINE structure and longevity; a wine low in acidity is less likely to age well stability by helping to keep bacteria and microorganisms at bay colour; the more acid, generally the more stable, intense and more vibrant the colour flavours; just as lemon can lift flavours in fish, acidity makes wine refreshing or crisp and leaves you wanting more similarly, acidity can sharpen the aromas of a wine. Hot tip: Tannins and acidity in particular can clash so avoid wines with high levels of both WHAT CAUSES ACIDITY IN WINE? Acidity is naturally present in grapes as it is in many foods and different varieties have different natural levels of acidity – Nebbiolo and Sauvignon Blanc for example are at the high end of the scale and Grenache and Viognier are at the low end. The level of acidity is also affected in the vineyard by soils, location and the weather or vintage. The level of acidity in grapes first increases but then declines as the grapes ripen on the vine and the level of sugar rises. It is therefore key to the natural balance of a wine that grapes are picked at the right time i.e. when acidity and sugars are at “optimal” levels. Why? Well, if acidity falls too much, a wine could be considered flat or “flabby” with dull flavours and a higher susceptibility to spoilage and infection. Too much acid can make a wine seem too sharp or even bitter. It is all a balancing act for the winemakers as they also need to consider fruit flavours, sugar and therefore alcohol levels. Winemakers might be tempted to adjust the acid (or the sugar- or both) and are generally permitted to do so within the boundaries of local regulations. Acidification, generally by the addition of tartaric acid, the most dominant acid in grapes, can be undertaken to increase acidity in warmer climate areas but can result in poorly made wine, especially where the adjustments are made post fermentation where the added acid has less chance to blend with the wine. A good taster can often recognise poor acidification as there is a very artificial acidic taste to the wine. Acidity is usually naturally lowered by malo-lactic fermentation or secondary fermentation, a process often encouraged by winemakers as it softens the acidity, converting malic acid into lactic acid and carbon dioxide. Deacidification may also be permitted by adding a carbonate – and though acid levels are reduced this can leave calcium tartrate crystals in the wine. These crystals are harmless but can deter some consumers from buying or drinking a wine. One type of acidity in wine that is not desirable is volatile acidity, essentially acetic acid or vinegar. A small amount is produced during fermentation but it increases in a wine exposed to air and in large quantities spoils the wine. Hot Tip: If you smell vinegar or nail polish remover in a wine, send it back WHICH WINES HAVE HIGH AND WHICH HAVE LOW ACIDITY? I could get scientific and talk about measuring total acidity and pH levels in wine but I’ll keep it short and just say that wines generally have a pH between 3.3 and 3.7 which sits in between black coffee with a pH of 5.0 and orange juice with a pH of 3.0. Few wines therefore are more acidic than a glass of your morning orange juice. But which wines should you opt for if you prefer to avoid wines with high acidity – here are a few tips: Hot tip: White wines tend to have higher acidity than red wines Almost all red wines undergo malo-lactic fermentation to convert harsh malic acid to softer lactic acid but not all white wines do; for example producers tend not to use MLF for Sauvignon Blanc but for producers of white Burgundy it is essential for the style. Lighter style red wines tend to have higher acidity than heavier, more full-bodied reds. As mentioned above as grapes ripen the level of acidity in them increases but then declines as the level of sugar rises. In cool climate areas such as Burgundy vines can struggle to ripen fully so grapes generally have higher acidity and lower sugar. Conversely grapes grown in warmer climates tend to have low acid and high sugar. Hot tip: Cool climate wines tend to have higher acidity than wines from warmer regions Very dry wines tend to have good acidity but this does not

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